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Introduction
Selenium, an essential biological trace element, has been shown to modulate functions of many regulatory proteins
involved in signal transduction, and to affect a variety of
cellular activities including cell growth, survival and
death[1,2]. The relationship between selenium and signal molecules has not been well elucidated. There are a lot of suppositions in recent
years. For example, it has been found that physio-logical concentrations of selenium
(<3 µmol/L) reduces apo-ptosis signal regulating kinase 1 (ASK1) activity and induces the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/AKT pathway in HT1080
cells[3_6]. It has been shown that selenium compounds such as selenite (commercially available as sodium selenite) has greater than
80% bioavailability. Selenite
increases cell proliferation through the upregulation of
Bcl-2 expression, mitochondrial membrane potential, ATP generation,
and glucose uptake mediated by PI3K pathway. Selenite, as an antioxidant, can also block apoptosis induced by
H2O2, which is related to blocking ASK1 activity and
further stimulating the activation of the PI3K/AKT
pathway[6,7].
The cellular decision to undergo apoptosis is determined by the integration of multiple survival and death
signals[8]. PI3K/AKT is a major cell survival pathway that has been extensively studied
recently[9]. AKT [also known as protein
kinase-B(PKB)] represents a subfamily of serine/threonine kinase. Three members of this family including AKT1, AKT2 and AKT3,
have been identified so far. AKT is activated in a PI3K-dependented manner by a variety of stimuli, including
growth factors, protein phosphatase inhibitors, and
stress[10_12]. Phosphorylation of residues Thr-308 and Ser-473 is required for AKT activity.
Several targets of AKT that have been identified have roles in the regulation of apoptosis, such as the pro-apoptotic proteins
Bcl-2/Bcl-xL-associated death protein (BAD) and caspase-9 and forkhead transcription factor like 1(FKHRL1). Activation of
AKT blocks BAD binding to Bcl-x, inhibits caspase-9 protease activity, and blocks FKHRL1 function, reducing Fas ligand
transcription, and thereby inducing anti-apoptotic
effects[13].
ASK1 is a member of the mitogen-activated protein
kinase (MAPK) family that activates both the mitogen-
activated protein kinase kinase(MKK)4/MKK7-c-jun N-
terminal kinase (JNK) and MKK3/MKK6-p38 signaling
cascades[14,15]. ASK1 is a general mediator of cell death in response
to a variety of stimuli, including oxidative stress and
chemotherapeutic drugs such as cisplatin and
paclitaxel[16,17]. Oxidative stress induces phosphorylation of Thr-845 in the activation loop of ASK1, which is correlated with ASK1
activity and ASK1-dependent
apoptosis[3,5]. On the other hand, AKT1 and ASK1 are physically associated; the
phosphorylation of ASK1 at Ser-83 is a consensus AKT1 phosphorylation site. Phosphorylation at Ser-83 by AKT1 is
related to a decrease in stimulated ASK1 kinase activity and promotes cell
survival[13].
JNK, a member of MAPK, is important in inducing neuronal death. The JNK are encoded by 3 genes: JNK1, JNK2 and
JNK3. Recent studies show that JNK is involved in apoptosis. For instance, overexpression of a constitutively activated
JNK kinase potentiates apoptosis of PC12 cell in response to nerve growth factor
deprivation[18]. Activated JNK, in turn,
phosphorylates a number of transcription factors, especially the c-Jun of component of AP-1, and cellular proteins,
particularly those associated with apoptosis (for example, Bcl-2,
P53)[19].
In the present study, we aimed to investigate whether selenite, a known antioxidant, could decrease the activation of the
ASK1/JNK signaling cascade in cerebral ischemia/reperfusion by activating the PI3K/AKT pathway in rat hippocampi, and
the neuroprotective effect of selenite against ischemic injury.
Materials and methods
Animal surgical procedures We selected adult male Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats weighing
250_300 g (Shanghai Experimental Animal Center, Chinese Academy of Science, Shanghai, China). All rats were divided into the following groups: sham
group, ischemia/reperfusion group, saline-treated group, saline+DMSO-treated group, selenite-treated group and
selenite+LY294002-treated groups. Every group was derived from 6 independent animals. The experimental procedures were
approved by the local legislation for ethics of experiments on animals. Cerebral ischemia was induced by 4-vessel occlusion
as described before[20]. Briefly, the rats were anesthetized with chloral hydrate (350 mg/kg, ip). The bilateral vertebral arteries
were occluded by electro-cautery. On the following day, the bilateral carotid arteries were occluded for specified time using
aneurysm clips. During ischemia, the animals were required to match the following criteria: completely flat
electroencephalo-graphs, maintenance of dilated pupils, absence of a cornea reflex when exposed to strong light stimulation, and maintenance
of rectal temperature at about 37 ºC. Those not matching these criteria or with seizures were all excluded. The sham operation
was performed using the same surgical exposure procedures except for the occlusion of the carotid artery.
Brain tissues and drug treatment
To test the time courses of the expression and phosphorylation of AKT1 and ASK1
after I/R, the rats were decapitated at 0, 30 min, 3, 6, 12 h, 1 and 3 d after 15 min of ischemia. Next, to evaluate the specific
mechanism of the relationship between the PI3K/AKT and ASK1/JNK pathways, an antioxidant selenite, and LY294002, a
specific inhibitor of the PI3K were used. The rats were pretreated only with selenite (0.3 mg/kg dissolved in 0.9% saline;
Sigma, St Louis, MO, USA) every 24 h for 7 d by means of intravenous injection of the tail or combined with LY294002 from
d 5 by left cerebral ventricle injection before surgery. LY294002 was dissolved in DMSO and was used by left cerebral
ventricle injection (25 mmol/L, 5 µL, from the bregma: anteroposterior, -0.8 mm; lateral, 1.5 mm; depth, 3.5 mm). The control rats
received equal volumes of 0.9% saline or DMSO. When the rat brains were removed by dissection, the hippocampi were
immediately frozen in liquid nitrogen. All samples were stored at -80 °C until use.
Tissue preparation The hippocampi tissues were homogenized in ice-cold homogenization buffer (50 mmol/L Mops pH
7.4, 100 mmol/L KCl, 50 mmol/L NaF, 20 mmol/L sodium pyrophosphate, 20 mmol/L
b-phosphogrycerol, 320 mmol/L sucrose, 0.2 mmol/L DTT, 1 mmol/L edetic acid, 1 mmol/L egtazic acid, 0.5 mmol/L
MgCl2, 1 mmol/L
Na3VO4, 1 mmol/L p-nitrophenyl
phosphate and protease inhibitors: 5 µg/mL aprotinin, 5 µg/mL leupeptin, 5 µg/mL pepstatin A, 1 mmol/L phenyl-methylsulfonyl
fluoride, and 1 mmol/L benzamidine). Then the homogenates were centrifuged at
800×g for 15 min at 4 °C. The supernatants
were collected and protein concentration was determined by the method of Lowry. Samples were stored at -80 °C until use.
Western blotting analysis
The samples were separated by 10% or 7.5% SDS-PAGE and electrotransferred onto
nitrocellulose membranes by the method described
before[20]. After blocking with 3% bovine serum albumin (BSA) for 3 h, the
membrane was probed with proper primary antibodies at 4 °C overnight. Bound antibodies were detected by using alkaline
phosphatase conjugated goat anti-mouse IgG or goat anti-rabbit IgG (Sigma, USA) for 2 h. Immunoreactivity was detected
by a NBT/BCIP assay kit (Promega, Madison, WI, USA) according to the manufacturer's instructions. The bands on the
membranes were scanned and analyzed with an image analyzer (LabWorks Software; UVP Inc, Upland, CA, USA).
Histology The rats were perfusion-fixed with 4% paraformaldehyde in 0.1 mol/L sodium phosphate buffer (pH 7.4) under
anesthesia after 3 d of I/R. The brains were removed quickly and further fixed with the same fixation solution at 4 °C overnight.
The post-fixed brains were embedded by paraffin, followed by preparation of coronal sections 5
mm thick using a microtome. The paraffin-embedded brain sections were deparaffinized with xylene and rehydrated by ethanol at graded concentrations
of 100%_70% (v/v), followed by washing with water. The sections were stained with 0.1%
(w/v) cresyl violet, and were examined with light microscopy. The number of surviving hippocampal CA1 pyramidal cells per 1 mm length was counted as
the neuronal density[21].
Antibodies Rabbit polyclonal anti-p-AKT1 (#9271) was obtained from Upstate Biotechnology (Lake Placid, NY, USA).
Rabbit polyclonal anti-p-ASK1-Ser83 (#3761), rabbit polyclonal anti-p-ASK1-Thr845 (#3765), rabbit polyclonal anti-ASK1
(#3762), and rabbit polyclonal anti-p-MKK4 (#9151) were purchased from Cell Signaling Technology (Danvers, MA, USA).
Rabbit polyclonal anti-MKK4 (sc964) was obtained from Santa Cruz Biotechnology (Santa Cruz, CA, USA). Rabbit polyclonal
anti-p-JNK1/2 was obtained from Promega Corporation (USA). Rabbit polyclonal anti-JNK1/2 was obtained from Sigma
Biotechnology (USA). Mouse polyclonal anti-AKT1 (sc1618) was obtained from Santa Cruz Biotechnology (USA). The
secondary antibodies used in our experiment were goat anti-mouse IgG, goat anti-rabbit IgG, and were from Sigma (USA).
Statistical analysis Values were expressed as mean±SD from 6 independent rats. Statistical analysis of the results was
performed by one-way analysis of variance followed by Duncan's new multiple range method.
P-values<0.05 were considered significant.
Results
Effects of selenite and LY294002 on AKT1 activation after I/R
To explore the effects of selenite and LY294002 on the
activation of the PI3K/AKT pathway, we initially examined the activation and expression of AKT1 at 0, 30 min, 3, 6, 12 h, 1 and
3 d of reperfusion following 15 min of ischemia. AKT1 activation first decreased at 0 min of reperfusion, then increased
rapidly compared with the control from 30 min of reperfusion, and decreased generally from 6 h before returning to the control
level at 1 d. Total AKT1 protein levels were unchanged (Figure 1A, 1B). Selenite strengthened AKT1 activation at 30 min of
reperfusion compared with the vehicle control, whereas the combined use of LY294002 blocked the increase of AKT1
activation induced by pretreatment only with selenite. The protein levels of AKT1 were unaffected (Figure 1C, 1D).
Effects of selenite and LY294002 on ASK1-Ser-83 phosphorylation after I/R
The phosphorylation of ASK1 at Ser-83 is a consensus AKT1 phosphorylation site. To examine whether selenite and LY294002 had the same effects on the Ser-83
phosphorylation of ASK1 as that of AKT1, samples from rat hippocampi at various time points of reperfusion following 15
min of ischemia were also used. The Ser-83 phosphorylation of ASK1 had a similar tendency as that of AKT1, except that the
phosphorylation of AKT1 and ASK1 peaked at 3 h and 6 h of reperfusion, respectively. The expression of ASK1 was not
affected (Figure 2A, 2B). Pretreatment with selenite significantly increased the Ser-83 phosphorylation of ASK1 at 30 min of
reperfusion compared with the vehicle control, whereas the combined use of both selenite and LY294002 blocked the increase
of the Ser-83 phosphorylation of ASK1 induced by pretreatment only with selenite. Meanwhile, selenite or LY294002 had no
effect on the expression of ASK1 (Figure 2C, 2D).
Effects of selenite and LY294002 on ASK1-Thr-845 phosphorylation after I/R
The increased Ser-83 phosphorylation induced by selenite might represent the decreased ASK1 activation. Thus, we next examined the possible effect of selenite
and LY294002 on Thr-845 phosphorylation, which is correlated with ASK1 activity. ASK1 was phosphorylated at Thr-845
with 2 peaks which occurred at 3 h and 3 d of reperfusion, respectively, whereas total protein levels of ASK1 were unaffected
(Figure 3A, 3B). At the 30 min time point, selenite obviously decreased the Thr-845 phosphorylation of ASK1 compared with
the vehicle control. However, pretreatment with both selenite and LY294002 restored the phenomena induced by
pretreatment only with selenite. The protein levels of ASK1 were not affected (Figure 3C, 3D).
Effects of selenite and LY294002 on MKK4 activation after I/R
We also examined the effects of selenite and LY294002 on
the activation of MKK4, a downstream
substrate of ASK1 at the 30 min time point of reperfusion.
Selenite significantly inhibited MKK4 activation at 30 min. On the contrary, the combined use of LY294002 reversed the
decrease of MKK4 activation induced by pretreatment only with selenite. The expression of MKK4 was unchanged (Figure
4).
Effects of selenite and LY294002 on JNK1/2 activation after I/R
Finally, we examined whether selenite could inhibit the
activation of JNK1/2, a downstream substrate of MKK4, and whether LY294002 could reverse the effect of selenite. The
earlier active peak of JNK1/2 at 30 min of reperfusion was selected. Selenite obviously inhibited JNK1/2 activation at 30 min
of reperfusion. On the contrary, LY294002 blocked the decreased JNK1/2 activation at 30 min of reperfusion induced by
pretreatment only with selenite. The protein levels of JNK1/2 were unaffected (Figure 5).
Neuroprotective effects of selenite against I/R-induced neuronal loss in hippocampal CA1 regions
To explore the neuroprotective effects of selenite against I/R-induced neuronal loss, cresyl violet staining was used to examine the survival
of CA1 pyramidal neurons. Normal cells showed round and pale-stained nuclei. The shrunken cells with pyknotic nuclei after
ischemia were counted as dead cells. Transient brain ischemia, followed by 3 d of reperfusion, induced severe cell death.
Pretreatment with selenite (0.3 mg/kg) for 7 d before ischemia significantly decreased neuronal degeneration, while
pretreatment with LY294002 and selenite aggravated cell death compared with only selenite pretreatment. However, the saline and
DMSO-treated groups had no obvious neuroprotective effects against I/R-induced
neuronal loss in hippocampal CA1 regions (Figure 6, Table 1).
Discussion
Recent studies have illustrated that the ischemia insult can induce the generation of free radicals, and the increase in free
radicals becomes larger and unambiguous especially during early
reperfusion[22]. Moreover, free radicals such as
H2O2 which are formed in association with a variety of oxidative stress-induced disorders may be related to cell death and hence play an
important role in apoptosis. The brain is particularly susceptible to damage due to oxidative stress because neurons are rich
in polyunsaturated fatty acids, and levels of endogenous antioxidant enzymes in neuronal tissue are
low[23,24]. Therefore, oxidative stress may contribute to neuronal cell death due to ischemia and reperfusion. Several synthetic free radical
scavengers have been evaluated in animal models of cerebral ischemia and reperfusion and have been shown to be protective.
For example, antioxidants, N-acetylcysteine (NAC) and pyrrolidine dithiocarbamate have important neuroprotective effects
against I/R-induced injury through downregulating the activation of
NF-kB[25,26,27]. Therefore, our present study is designed to
further investigate the protective effects of selenite, an antioxidant, during reperfusion after 15 min of global brain ischemia
in rat hippocampi. Our results suggest that the pretreatment with selenite (0.3 mg/kg) for 7 d before ischemia can strongly
decrease neuronal degeneration compared with the control rats.
Previous papers have shown that reactive oxidative species (ROS) such as
H2O2 can induce the activation of the
ASK1/JNK signaling cascade[6]. As a known oxidative stress-responsive SEK1 kinase, ASK1-mediated apoptosis is associated with
ROS[20]. Moreover, we have found that the early JNK activation was also associated with ROS following ischemia, and the
activation of ASK1 and JNK can be obviously inhibited by antioxidants, such as
NAC[20,28]. Further-more, it has been reported that, as an anti-apoptotic signal molecule, AKT is activated by
H2O2 which is associated with a much shorter
duration. Recent studies have demonstrated that selenite blocks oxidative stress-induced apoptosis through the activation
of the PI3K/AKT pathway and the inhibition of the ASK1/JNK pathway in HT1080
cells[6]. Thus, in our present study, an
antioxidant selenite was used to test the relationship between the signal molecules and oxidative stress. As we expected,
selenite strongly inhibited the activation of ASK1/JNK cascade and simultaneously increased the AKT1 activation.
Together with previous studies, our results show that antioxidants can block the activation of the ASK1/JNK cascade and
further stimulate PI3K/AKT
activities during early reperfusion after cerebral ischemia, which also implies that there might be some delicate balance
between the pro-apoptotic ASK1/JNK cascade and the anti-apoptotic PI3K/AKT pathway.
It is well known that AKT is a critical mediator of cell survival, and the prolonged activation of AKT is necessary for the
prevention of apoptosis. Compared with AKT, ASK1 plays a central role in the mechanisms of stress- and cytokine-induced
apoptosis. ASK1 is composed of an inhibitory N-terminal domain, an internal kinase domain and a C-terminal regulatory
domain, which is a central target of many cellular survival factors that bind to its different domains to keep it in an inactive
state. It has been reported that AKT and ASK1 are physically associated. ASK1 can be phosphorylated at several sites, and
these phosphorylation sites regulate ASK1 activity in both positive and negative manners. For example, phosphorylation at
Ser-967 is essential for ASK1 associated with the 14-3-3 protein and suppression of cell
death[29]. Oxidative stress induces dephosphorylation of Ser-967 and phosphorylation of Thr-845 in the activation loop of ASK1, and both are correlated with
ASK1 activation and ASK1-dependent
apoptosis[30,31]. Conversely, several serine/threonine protein kinases such as AKT1
directly phosphorylates ASK1 at Ser-83, a consensus AKT1 phosphorylation site, which attenuates ASK1 activity and
promotes cell survival[32]. That is to say, the activation of the PI3K/AKT pathway can reduce the activation of the ASK1/JNK
signaling cascade in a manner dependent on phosphorylation of Ser-83 of ASK1. Thus, in our present study, LY294002, a
specific PI3K inhibitor was used to confirm the inhibitory mechanism of the PI3K/AKT pathway on the ASK1/JNK cascade
during early reperfusion after cerebral ischemia. Fantastically, the inhibition of AKT1 by the PI3K inhibitor significantly
reversed the activation of the ASK1/JNK cascade as our data shown. Although the exact mechanism by which AKT1 inhibits
ASK1 was not clear, it provided evidence to support the fact that AKT1 negatively regulated ASK1 activity by
phosphorylating ASK1 at Ser-83 in response to ischemia stress.
In conclusion, our results clearly demonstrated that antioxidant selenite could increase the activation of the anti-apoptotic
PI3K/AKT pathway and decrease the activation of the pro-apoptotic ASK1/JNK cascade via phosphorylating ASK1 at
Ser-83 residue by AKT1 during early reperfusion after cerebral ischemia in rat hippocampi. It gave us a novel clue that
antioxidants might suppress oxidative stress-induced ischemic brain insult through the activation of the PI3K/AKT pathway and
the inhibition of the ASK1/JNK cascade.
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